The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission’s (FERC) Order 2222, issued in September 2020, allows aggregated distributed energy resources (DERs) to participate in wholesale energy markets as a single entity, often referred to as a virtual power plant (VPP). VPPs control dispatchable, aggregated DERs (including flexible, responsive loads), contribute to multiple electricity market types, and provide various grid services [1]. VPPs are not limited to any specific DER technologies; the scope of
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